Relations’ research profile. While we focus on issues of global governance, international institutions, and policy diffusion within world society, we are also interested in investigating further aspects of plastic pollution, such as its linkages to environmental crime or environmental security.
The Ubiquity of Plastics
The term ‘plastics’ subsumes a variety of synthetical and semi-synthetical materials, that are produced by processing natural raw materials, such as natural gas and crude oil. Chemical-thermal processes allow to manufacture polymers in a multitude of ways, depending on the desired properties of a product (Abts 2016: 4).
Based on their composition, plastics can be differentiated in thermoplastics, duroplastics and elastomers as different groups of material (Bertling, Bertling and Hamann 2018: 6). With a market share of 65 per cent, thermoplastics are the most widely used group (Abts 2016: 58). Some of the most common plastic types include polyethylene (PE), which is used to produce plastic bags, bowls and packaging foil; polypropylene (PP), which is used in automotive industry or in constructing furniture, casing and upholstery, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), which is used in the production of flooring, artificial leather, wallpaper and gaskets, polystyrene (PS), which is used for packaging and insulation, polyurethane (PUR), which is manufactured in mattresses, furniture or insulation materials in the form of foam and polyethylene terephthalate (PET), which is commonly used in electrical engineering for the production of household appliances, computers, telephones, or in the food industry (Abts 2016: 216-218).
It is evident that plastics are irreplaceable in many areas of modern life. Due to its high durability and formability, the material is used in almost every industry. It serves as packaging material, ensures the safe transportation and storage of food, is an integral part of electronics and technology and is utilized in the medical sector.
However, plastics are not only ubiquitous in society, but – as a consequence of its use – also in the environment. The material is neither water-soluble nor biodegradable and can persist in the environment for hundreds of years without deteriorating (Abts 2016: 201). This longevity and durability, which define its value as production material on one hand, complicates the environmentally sound disposal of plastic waste on the other.
Plastic waste can be differentiated in macro- and microplastics (Bertling, Bertling and Hamann 2018:6). Macroplastics comprise all plastic particles with a thickness of five μm, everything smaller is defined as microplastic (Xanthos & Walker 2017: 18). The latter can be categorized into primary and secondary microplastics. While primary microplastics are deliberately produced in a small size (Type A) or released during manufacturing (Type B), secondary microplastics are formed over time through the fragmentation of larger plastic particles (Bertling, Bertling und Hamann 2018: 9).
Currently over 370 million tons of plastic are produced worldwide annually (Plastics Europe 2020). Between 1950 and 2017 about 8,300 million tons of plastic were produced, of which only nine percent were recycled, and 12 percent incinerated, while the remaining 79 percent were landfilled or pollute the environment (Simon et al. 2018: V). It is difficult to measure the extent of the global plastic pollution, because of the amount of unregistered or illicitly disposed plastic, the numerous entry ways as well as the global distribution of macro- and microplastic particles through air and waters (Bertling, Bertling and Hamann 2018: 14).
The Consequences of the Plastic Waste Pollution
In this context, especially marine littering is perceived as a serious problem by both, public and political actors worldwide. To date, an estimated 5,25 trillion tons of plastic waste have entered marine ecosystems through a variety of land- and water-based sources (UNEP 2016: 36). Although emissions into the environment may occur throughout the whole life-cycle of plastic products, one of the main sources of marine pollution is packaging waste. Almost 50 per cent of the annually produced plastic products are discarded after a single use (Xanthos and Walker 2017: 18). If improperly managed, the generated waste can enter the ocean via waterways. Other sources of entry may include the emission of plastic pallets during their production, the discharge of wastes from the textile, construction and agriculture industry as well as the deliberate or accidental release of plastic products during their transportation (GESAMP 2016: 20, Karlsson et al. 2018).
The ecological implications of the plastic waste pollution are numerous: Marine animals and seabirds get caught up in floating macroplastic debris and suffer from strangulation or entanglement (UNEP 2016: 91). Marine mammals and fish are found with plastic particles in their digestive systems since the animals mistake floating plastic for food and starve to death while having a full stomach it, unable to digest or excrete the particles (Bertling, Bertling and Hamann 2018: 31). While the long-term implications for populations and species have yet to be examined, it is estimated that up to 135,000 marine mammals as well as over a million seabird die annually as a result of marine plastic pollution (NABU 2019). Moreover, entire ecosystems are endangered by plastic pollution. Macro- and microplastic particles damage coral reefs and mangrove forests, accumulate in all environmental compartments, and thus pose a threat to the integrity of the oceans (Bertling, Bertling and Hamann 2018: 31). Since microplastics are dispersed through air and water, it is assumed that the particles are omnipresent in the environment and have also been regularly ingested by humans (UNEP 2016: 101, Bertling, Bertling und Hamann 2018: 29). Microplastic particles have already been found in seafood and fish (GESAMP 2016) as well as in beer, honey, and drinking water (Sieg, Böhmert and Lampen 2019). While it is proven that humans can ingest plastic through food and respiration, the effects of this exposure have not been sufficiently researched to evaluate the consequences (UNEP 2016: 102).
Still, the potential risks of plastic waste pollution to the human health are subject to an extensive scientific discourse. This research includes studies on the hazardous effects of chemical additives to plastics (Wright and Kelly 2017), on the exposure to the chemicals released during waste management and recycling processes, as well as on the effects of long-term exposure to plastic waste in general (Plastic Atlas 2019, UNEP 2016).
In addition, plastic waste pollution has an economic impact: The accumulation of litter in coastal areas, on islands and on beaches can decrease the aesthetic value of vacations destination and thus damage the tourism sector. Moreover, the increasing amounts of waste in the environment can negatively impact the agriculture and fishing sectors as well as the transportation industry (UNEP 2016: 108-111).
In summary, plastic pollution is a significant global problem which encompasses a variety of complex and interconnected ecological, social and economic challenges that require a comprehensive solution.
Plastics, Global Governance and Policy Diffusion
Due to the multitude of ecological, social and economic consequences, the utilization of plastics, the disposal of plastic waste as well as the emission of plastics into the environment create complex and multidimensional challenges that require global solutions. International Relations offer a systematic perspective to examine the involved processes, actors, dynamics, and implications. In addition to the analysis of the emergence, diffusion, and effectiveness of local, national, and international regulatory efforts, the activities and interactions of the actors involved can be addressed. Governments, businesses and civil society actors have different understandings, objectives and strategies concerning plastics that need to be analyzed. The empirical and theoretical tools of IR as a discipline can be used to assess the implications of plastic pollution for the global environmental, economic and security politics and to explain the capabilities of global governance efforts to address such complex challenges.
Author: Ronja Hänschen
Sources:
Abts, G. (2016). Kunststoff-Wissen für Einsteiger (3. Aufl.). Carl Hanser Fachbuchverlag: München.
Bertling, J., Bertling, R. and Hamann,L. (2018). Kunststoffe in der Umwelt: Mikro- und Makroplastik. Retrieved on April 27th 2021, from https://www.umsicht.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/umsicht/de/dokumente/publikationen/2018/kunststoffe-id-umwelt-konsortialstudie-mikroplastik.pdf .
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Karlsson, M.T., Arneborg, L., Broström, G., Almroth, B.C., Gipperth, L. and Hassellöv, M. (2018). The Unaccountability Case of Plastic Pellet Pollution. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 129 (1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.01.041.
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Plastics Europe (2020). The Facts. Plastics Europe. Retrieved on April 27th 2021, from https://www.plasticseurope.org/application/files/5716/0752/4286/AF_Plastics_the_facts-WEB-2020-ING_FINAL.pdf .
Sieg, H., Böhmert, L. und Lampen, A. (2019). Mikroplastik in Lebensmitteln: Orale Aufnahme, Toxikologie und Risikobewertung. In Bundesinstitut für Risikobewertung (Hrsg.), UMID -Umwelt + Mensch Informationsdienst.
Simon, N.; McGlade, K., Knoblauch, D., Mederake, L. Schulte, M. und Masali, M. (2018). No more Plastics in the Ocean: Gaps in Global Plastic Governance and Options for a Legally Binding Agreement to Eliminate Marine Plastic Pollution. Draft report for WWF to support discussions at the Ad Hoc Open-ended Expert Group on Marine Litter and Microplastics. Adelphi: Berlin.
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Xanthos, D. und Walker, T.R. (2017). International policies to reduce plastic marine pollution from single-use plastics (plastic bags and microbeads): A review. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 118 (1-2), 17-26.